Honeybees

Honeybees are flying insects in the genus Apis, best known for their production of honey and beeswax and for their critical role as pollinators. The Western honeybee (Apis mellifera) is the most widespread and economically important species, kept by beekeepers worldwide. Honeybees are remarkable for their complex social structure, sophisticated communication, and essential role in agriculture.

Classification and Species

Taxonomy

• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Arthropoda
• Class: Insecta
• Order: Hymenoptera
• Family: Apidae
• Genus: Apis

Honeybee Species

Apis mellifera Subspecies

Over 20 subspecies exist:

• A. m. ligustica (Italian bee) - Most commonly managed
• A. m. carnica (Carniolan bee) - Cold-climate adapted
• A. m. mellifera (European dark bee) - Northern Europe
• A. m. scutellata (African bee) - Tropical Africa

Anatomy

External Structure

Adult honeybees have three body segments:

Head

• Compound eyes (two, with ~6,900 facets each)
• Simple eyes (three ocelli for light detection)
• Antennae (chemical and tactile sensors)
• Mandibles (for manipulating wax, grooming)
• Proboscis (tongue for collecting nectar)

Thorax

• Three pairs of legs
• Two pairs of wings
• Flight muscles

Abdomen

• Wax glands (workers)
• Stinger (modified ovipositor)
• Digestive system
• Honey stomach (crop)

Special Adaptations

Colony Structure

Castes

A honeybee colony consists of three castes:

Queen

• Only sexually mature female
• Lays up to 2,000 eggs per day
• Lives 2-5 years
• Produces pheromones controlling colony behavior
• Mates once, stores sperm for life
• Larger than workers

Workers

• Sterile females
• Majority of colony (20,000-80,000)
• Perform all colony tasks
• Live 6 weeks (summer) to 6 months (winter)
• Tasks change with age (temporal polyethism)

Worker Task Progression:

Drones

• Males
• Only function: mate with queens
• No stinger
• Cannot feed themselves
• Die after mating
• Expelled from colony in fall

Colony Population

Annual cycle:

• Spring: Rapid buildup (20,000-40,000)
• Summer: Peak population (40,000-80,000)
• Fall: Population decline, drone expulsion
• Winter: Small cluster (10,000-20,000)

The Hive

Natural Nests

Wild honeybees nest in:

• Tree cavities
• Rock crevices
• Building voids
• Cavity volume: 20-100 liters preferred

Comb Structure

Beeswax comb consists of:

• Hexagonal cells (most efficient shape)
• Cell size: ~5.2-5.4 mm (worker), ~6.9 mm (drone)
• Cell angle: 13° upward (prevents honey flow)
• Two-sided construction
• Temperature maintained at ~35°C (95°F)

Comb Uses

Communication

The Waggle Dance

Karl von Frisch discovered this remarkable behavior:

• Communicates food source location
• Waggle run: Direction relative to sun
• Duration: Indicates distance
• Intensity: Indicates quality
• Can communicate sources miles away

Dance Interpretation

• Straight up = toward sun
• Angle from vertical = angle from sun
• 1 second waggle ≈ 1 km distance

Pheromones

Chemical communication:

Other Communication

• Vibration signals
• Piping (queens)
• Stop signals
• Shaking signals

Life Cycle

Development

Complete metamorphosis (egg → larva → pupa → adult):

Reproduction

Colony Reproduction (Swarming)

1. Colony raises new queen(s)
2. Old queen leaves with ~60% of workers
3. Swarm clusters temporarily
4. Scouts find new home
5. Swarm moves to new location

Queen Mating

• Mating flights at 1-2 weeks old
• Mates with 10-20 drones
• Stores 5-6 million sperm
• Drones die after mating
• Queen never mates again

Nutrition

Foraging

Workers collect:

• Nectar: Carbohydrate source
• Pollen: Protein source
• Water: Temperature regulation, diluting honey
• Propolis: Plant resins for sealing

Honey Production

Process:

1. Forager collects nectar
2. Passes to house bee via trophallaxis
3. Enzymes added (invertase, glucose oxidase)
4. Deposited in cells
5. Fanned to reduce moisture
6. Capped when <18% moisture

Honey composition:

Royal Jelly

Special food for queens:

• Secreted by nurse bee glands
• Fed exclusively to queen larvae
• Contains proteins, sugars, fatty acids
• Triggers queen development

Pollination

Economic Importance

Honeybees pollinate approximately:

• 80% of flowering plants
• 35% of global food crops
• ~$15-20 billion annually (US agriculture)
• $235-577 billion globally

Crops Pollinated

Pollination Efficiency

Why honeybees are excellent pollinators:

• Large colonies
• Flower constancy
• Manageable for agriculture
• Communicate food sources
• Active in various temperatures

Threats and Conservation

Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD)

Widespread colony losses:

• First reported 2006-2007
• Workers abandon hive
• Multiple probable causes
• Ongoing research

Threats to Honeybees

Conservation Efforts

• Integrated pest management
• Pollinator-friendly farming
• Habitat restoration
• Research funding
• Public awareness
• Reduced pesticide use

Beekeeping

History

Beekeeping (apiculture) history:

• Honey hunting: 8,000+ years (rock art evidence)
• Ancient Egypt: 4,500 years ago
• Movable frame hive: 1851 (L.L. Langstroth)
• Modern commercial beekeeping

Modern Beekeeping

Equipment:

• Langstroth hive (most common)
• Smoker (calms bees)
• Protective clothing
• Hive tool

Management practices:

• Regular inspections
• Disease monitoring
• Swarm prevention
• Honey harvest
• Winter preparation

Hive Products

Interesting Facts

• A single bee produces ~1/12 teaspoon of honey in its lifetime
• Foragers visit 50-100 flowers per trip
• Colony may travel 55,000 miles to make 1 pound of honey
• Bees can fly up to 15 mph
• Queen can lay her body weight in eggs daily
• Bees have been on Earth for ~100 million years
• Honey never spoils if properly stored

See Also

• Photosynthesis
• Climate Change
• DNA

References

1. Seeley, T.D. (2010). Honeybee Democracy. Princeton University Press.
2. Winston, M.L. (1987). The Biology of the Honey Bee. Harvard University Press.
3. von Frisch, K. (1967). The Dance Language and Orientation of Bees. Harvard University Press.